The Mesopotamians made significant contributions to mathematics and astronomy. They developed a number system based on the number 60, which is still used to measure time and angles today. They also developed a calendar based on the movements of the moon and stars, which was more accurate than the calendars used by other civilizations at the time.
The Mesopotamian religion was polytheistic, with many gods and goddesses who represented different aspects of life. Ishtar, also known as Inanna, was one of the most important goddesses in the Mesopotamian pantheon. She was the goddess of love, sexuality, fertility, war, and power. Her cult was widespread throughout Mesopotamia and beyond.

The Mesopotamians also developed a rich mythology, including stories of creation, flood, and heroism. The Epic of Gilgamesh, one of the oldest known works of literature, tells the story of a king who seeks immortality and wisdom.

The influence of Mesopotamian civilization on ancient Greek philosophy can be seen in the writings of philosophers such as Thales and Anaximander, who were influenced by Mesopotamian cosmology and cosmogony. The Mesopotamians believed that the universe was created through a series of battles between gods, and that the world was sustained by the balance of opposing forces. This idea of the balance of opposing forces, known as the principle of polarity, was an important concept in ancient Greek philosophy.

The Mesopotamian civilization played a critical role in shaping human history and culture, and its influence can still be seen in many aspects of modern life.

The Mesopotamian civilization had a significant influence on the culture of the Greeks, particularly in the areas of mythology, religion, and philosophy. The Greeks were exposed to Mesopotamian culture through trade, travel, and conquest, and they incorporated many Mesopotamian ideas and beliefs into their own culture. 

The rivers provided a source of water and fertile soil for agriculture, which allowed the Mesopotamian civilization to develop into a sophisticated society. However, the region was also prone to flooding, which made it necessary for the Mesopotamians to develop irrigation systems and other technologies to manage the water supply.

In contrast, the Greeks lived in a region with a more moderate climate and a varied geography that included mountains, forests, and coastlines. This allowed for greater diversity in the economy and trade, as well as the development of a seafaring culture. The Greeks also had access to a variety of natural resources, such as timber and metals, which influenced their technology and economy.

The differences in geography and environment between the Mesopotamian Valley and the Greeks had an impact on their respective worldviews. For example, the Mesopotamians developed a complex religion that was closely tied to the cycles of the river and agriculture. The Greeks, on the other hand, developed a mythology that was influenced by their diverse geography, including stories of gods and goddesses associated with the sea, mountains, and forests.

Comparing the impact of geography and environment on the Mesopotamian and Greek civilizations can reveal important insights into their respective worldviews and the factors that shaped their development. For example, the Mesopotamian reliance on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers may have influenced their view of the world as cyclical and subject to the forces of nature, while the Greeks' varied geography may have contributed to their more individualistic and diverse worldview.

The Mesopotamians developed one of the earliest known writing systems, known as cuneiform, which involved using a stylus to make wedge-shaped impressions on clay tablets. This system was used to record administrative, legal, and religious information, as well as literature and scientific knowledge. Cuneiform was used by several Mesopotamian civilizations, including the Sumerians, Babylonians, and Assyrians.

In contrast, the Greeks developed their own writing system, known as the Greek alphabet. The Greek alphabet was a phonetic system, meaning that each letter represented a specific sound. This system was much simpler than cuneiform and allowed for greater flexibility in writing and recording information. The Greek alphabet was used to write a wide range of literature, including poetry, philosophy, and history.

One important difference between the two writing systems is that cuneiform was primarily used for practical purposes, such as recording transactions and laws, while the Greek alphabet was used to express a wide range of intellectual and artistic endeavors. This difference may reflect broader cultural differences between the two civilizations, with the Mesopotamians placing greater emphasis on practical matters, while the Greeks placed more value on intellectual and artistic pursuits.

Despite these differences, both writing systems played a crucial role in the development of their respective civilizations. They allowed for the preservation and transmission of knowledge and ideas across generations and played a key role in shaping the intellectual and cultural landscape of the ancient world.

One similarity between Mesopotamian and Greek religions is that they were polytheistic. Both civilizations believed in a pantheon of gods and goddesses who were responsible for various aspects of human life, such as fertility, warfare, and wisdom. These gods and goddesses were often associated with natural phenomena such as the sun, moon, and stars.

However, there were also significant differences between Mesopotamian and Greek religions. For example, Mesopotamian religions were characterized by a focus on rituals and offerings, as well as a belief in the importance of divine intervention in everyday life. The Mesopotamians believed that the gods and goddesses controlled the fate of individuals and societies, and that it was necessary to appease them through worship and sacrifice.

In contrast, Greek religion emphasized personal responsibility and agency. The Greeks believed that individuals had the power to shape their own destinies through their actions, and that the gods and goddesses could be influenced through prayer and offerings. This belief in individual agency may have contributed to the Greeks' emphasis on democracy and civic participation.

Another difference between Mesopotamian and Greek religions is the way they understood the afterlife. The Mesopotamians believed in a shadowy underworld known as the "land of no return," where all souls went after death. In contrast, the Greeks believed in a complex system of afterlife, with various destinations depending on a person's deeds in life. This belief in a more nuanced afterlife may have contributed to the Greeks' interest in philosophy and ethics.

Overall, comparing Mesopotamian and Greek religion and mythology can reveal important differences in their values, beliefs, and worldviews. These differences may reflect broader cultural and historical contexts and can shed light on the unique contributions of each civilization to human culture and thought.

One of the most significant technological achievements of the Mesopotamians was the invention of writing. The cuneiform script allowed for the recording of transactions, laws, and historical events, which in turn enabled the development of complex administrative systems and the growth of trade and commerce. The Mesopotamians were also skilled engineers, developing complex irrigation systems and building large-scale infrastructure projects such as ziggurats and palaces.

In contrast, the Greeks placed a greater emphasis on mathematics and theoretical science. Greek mathematicians such as Pythagoras, Euclid, and Archimedes made significant contributions to the fields of geometry and number theory, which laid the foundation for modern mathematics. Greek philosophers such as Aristotle and Plato also made important contributions to the fields of natural science, astronomy, and biology, developing theories and ideas that would shape scientific inquiry for centuries to come.

Despite these differences, there were also areas of overlap between Mesopotamian and Greek science and technology. Both civilizations made significant advancements in astronomy and developed sophisticated systems for observing the movement of celestial bodies. They also made contributions to the fields of medicine and pharmacology, developing treatments for a variety of illnesses and ailments.

The Mesopotamians developed a complex system of thought that incorporated religion, mythology, and ethics. They believed that the gods controlled every aspect of life and sought to understand their will through divination and omens. They also developed a sophisticated legal system that emphasized the importance of fairness and justice. Some of the key philosophical concepts developed by the Mesopotamians include the idea of fate, the importance of moral responsibility, and the concept of the afterlife.

In contrast, the Greeks placed a greater emphasis on reason and logic in their philosophical and intellectual traditions. Greek philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle developed theories and ideas that continue to influence Western philosophy to this day. They sought to understand the nature of reality, the role of the individual in society, and the meaning of human existence. They also made important contributions to the fields of ethics, politics, and metaphysics.

Despite these differences, there were also areas of overlap between Mesopotamian and Greek philosophy and intellectual thought. Both civilizations placed a strong emphasis on the importance of education and intellectual inquiry, and both developed sophisticated systems of thought that sought to understand the world and human existence. Both also believed in the importance of moral responsibility and the pursuit of justice.

Overall, comparing the philosophical and intellectual achievements of the Mesopotamians and Greeks can provide valuable insights into their respective worldviews and the ways in which they sought to understand and navigate the world around them. These innovations laid the foundation for many of the philosophical and intellectual developments that have shaped the course of human history.

The king was seen as the representative of the gods and was responsible for maintaining social order, protecting the city-state from external threats, and ensuring that the gods were properly worshipped through rituals and sacrifices. The social structure was hierarchical, with the king and the aristocracy occupying the highest positions, followed by merchants, artisans, and farmers.

In contrast, Greek society was more decentralized, with city-states operating as independent entities with their own governments and laws. The political system was characterized by the presence of democracy in some city-states, such as Athens, while others were ruled by oligarchies or monarchies. The social structure was also different, with an emphasis on individual achievement and merit rather than birth or social status.

Comparing the two civilizations in terms of political and social organization can provide valuable insights into the factors that contribute to the success or failure of different forms of government and social structure. For example, the Mesopotamians were able to create a powerful empire through the centralization of power in the hands of the king, while the Greeks were able to develop a vibrant culture of democracy and individual achievement through their decentralized political structure.

References and sources

Geography and Environment

1. Adams, Robert McC. "The Evolution of Urban Society: Early Mesopotamia and Prehispanic Mexico" (1966)

2. Algaze, Guillermo. "The Uruk World System: The Dynamics of Expansion of Early Mesopotamian Civilization" (2005)

3. Butzer, Karl W. "Environment and Archeology: An Ecological Approach to Prehistory" (1982)

4. Sanlaville, Paul. "The Environment, Climate, Vegetation, and Landscape of the Near East During the Holocene" in Paleorient (1997)

5. Wilkinson, Tony J. "Archaeological Landscapes of the Near East" (2003)

Language and Writing

1. Cooper, Jerrold S. "Sumerian and Akkadian Royal Inscriptions" (1986)

2. Gelb, I.J. "A Study of Writing" (1963)

3. Kramer, Samuel Noah. "The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character" (1963)

4. Michalowski, Piotr. "The Lamentation over the Destruction of Sumer and Ur" (1989)

5. Walker, C.B.F. "Cuneiform" in Reading the Past series (1990)

Religion and Mythology

1. Black, Jeremy and Green, Anthony. "Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary" (1992)

2. Bottéro, Jean. "Religion in Ancient Mesopotamia" (2001)

3. Jacobsen, Thorkild. "The Treasures of Darkness: A History of Mesopotamian Religion" (1976)

4. Kramer, Samuel Noah. "Sumerian Mythology" (1944, revised 1961)

5. Lambert, W.G. "Babylonian Creation Myths" (2013)

Science and Technology

1. Englund, Robert K. "Proto-Cuneiform Texts from Diverse Collections" (1996)

2. Neugebauer, Otto. "The Exact Sciences in Antiquity" (1957)

3. Powell, Marvin A. "Weights and Measures" in Civilizations of the Ancient Near East (1995)

4. Robson, Eleanor. "Mathematics in Ancient Iraq: A Social History" (2008)

5. Van De Mieroop, Marc. "The Ancient Mesopotamian City" (1999) - includes technological developments

Philosophy and Intellectual Thought

1. Abusch, Tzvi. "Mesopotamian Witchcraft: Toward a History and Understanding of Babylonian Witchcraft Beliefs" (2002)

2. Foster, Benjamin R. "Before the Muses: An Anthology of Akkadian Literature" (2005)

3. Lambert, W.G. "Babylonian Wisdom Literature" (1960)

4. Parpola, Simo. "Letters from Assyrian and Babylonian Scholars" (1993)

5. Rochberg, Francesca. "The Heavenly Writing: Divination, Horoscopy, and Astronomy in Mesopotamian Culture" (2004)

Political and Social Organization

1. Charpin, Dominique. "Writing, Law, and Kingship in Old Babylonian Mesopotamia" (2010)

2. Liverani, Mario. "The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy" (2014)

3. Oppenheim, A. Leo. "Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization" (1964, revised 1977)

4. Postgate, J.N. "Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the Dawn of History" (1994)

5. Van De Mieroop, Marc. "A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000-323 BC" (2015)

Major Digital Resources

1. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL)

2. Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative (CDLI)

3. The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago (CAD)

4. The Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary (PSD)

5. The Ancient Near East Online (ANET Online)